AGRICULTURE FILES

Dragon fruit

2008-02-17T09:43:00.004+07:00

Author
Naidu Ratnala Thulaja
Nor-Afidah Abd Rahman

Dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus), a tropical fruit popular in Southeast Asia, belongs to the climbing cacti (Cactaceae) family. Vietnam is the main commercial producer of dragon fruits in this region. The fruit, apart from being refreshing and tasty, has loads of vitamin C and is said to aid digestion.

Origin and distribution
The fruit is native to Central America. It is known as Pitahaya in Mexico and as Pitaya roja in Central America and northern South America. Pitahaya is the Spanish name for fruiting vines of Central America. The fruit was introduced in Vietnam by the French over a hundred years ago. According to some, the French took the fruit from Nicaragua and Columbia while others said they brought it from Guyana (South America) in 1870 as an ornamental plant. For its large attractive flowers which bloom only at night, the flamboyant plant is also known as "moonflower" or "lady of the night".

When the Vietnamese discovered the plant's tasty fruit, they cultivated it for food, just as the Mexicans did. The Vietnamese now regard this fruit as indigenous, especially the white flesh variety, Hylocereus undatus, or called Blue Dragon or thanh long by the Vietnamese Only of late was the fruit grown in Vietnam on a large-scale as a commercial crop. As one of Vietnam's most profitable crops, it is exported to markets all over the Southeast Asia. The commercialisation of the crop is also catching up in Thailand, New Zealand, Australia and Hawaii.

The plant gets its genus name Hylocerus from the word cerus derived from the Latin word cera, meaning "wax" or "torch-like".

Description
The plant is a climbing cactus vine that grows well in dry areas. Because of its epiphytic nature, it grows best in soil with a high level of organic materials. The flowers are white and large, measuring 30 cm long or more. They are ornate and produce a sweet fragrance when in bloom. The flowers bloom for one night only. Pitahaya plants can have between four to six fruiting cycles in one year. It can be propagated by seed or by stem cuttings.

The dragon fruit has a dramatic appearance, bright pink or yellow skinned (from Columbia) with green coloured spine-like scales. The scales turn yellow as the fruit ripens while the skin peels easily. The fruit is oval shaped, elliptical or pear-shaped. Inside, the flesh has subtly flavoured sweet taste or sometimes slightly sourish. The flesh is either white or red with black seeds dotted all over. The seeds resemble sesame seeds and taste like cactus seeds. It imparts a crunchy texture. Dragon fruits are also called cactus fruits. They are closely related to the orchid cacti or epiphyllum. Epiphyllums are known for their large and impressive flowers. The pitahaya can be cross pollinated with the epiphyllums.

Usage and potential
Food
The fruit is popularly eaten raw and tastes better chilled. It is also served as a juice. The flesh is sweet and sometimes served with mango in a tropical sorbet. The fruit is also used to flavour drinks while syrup made of the whole fruit is used to colour pastries and candy.The pulp of the fruit is used in producing an alcoholic beverage. The fruit makes a wonderful cocktail on its own or mixed with other tropical fruits. It is sometimes used in cooking. Unopened flowerbuds can be cooked like vegetables.

Medicine
Dragon fruits reputedly improve eyesight and prevent hypertension. The seeds of the fruit supposed help in controlling blood glucose levels in people with non-insulin-dependent hyperglycaemic conditions (a kind of diabetes). It is also used to treat stomach and endocrine problems.

Other uses
The plant is popularly planted as a climber to cover chainlink fencing. Parts of the pitahaya plant can be used to produce food colour.

Variant names
Common name: Dragon Fruit or Dragon Pearl Fruit.
Scientific name: Hylocereus undatus, or its synonym, Cereus triangularis.
Malay name: Kaktus madu.
Chinese name: Long guo (Mandarin).
Vietnamese name: Thanh long.
Other common names: Pitahaya, Strawberry Pear, Cactus fruit, Night blooming Cereus, Belle of the Night, Cinderella plant.

Sea cucumber protein used to inhibit development of malaria parasite

2008-01-24T15:42:00.000+07:00

Scientists have genetically engineered a mosquito to release a sea-cucumber protein into its gut which impairs the development of malaria parasites, according to research out today (21 December) in PLoS Pathogens. Researchers say this development is a step towards developing future methods of preventing the transmission of malaria.
Malaria is caused by parasites whose lives begin in the bodies of mosquitoes. When mosquitoes feed on the blood of an infected human, the malaria parasites undergo complex development in the insect’s gut. The new study has focused on disrupting this growth and development with a lethal protein, CEL-III, found in sea cucumbers, to prevent the mosquito from passing on the parasite.
Human blood infected with malaria contains parasitic gametocytes – cells which can create parasite sperm and eggs in the gut of the insect. These then fertilise, kick-starting the parasite reproductive process and life cycle by producing invasive offspring called ookinetes.
These ookinetes then migrate through the mosquito’s stomach wall and produce thousands of ‘daughter’ cells known as sporozoites. After 10-20 days these are ready in the salivary glands to infect another human when the mosquito takes a subsequent blood meal.
The international team fused part of the sea cucumber lectin gene with part of a mosquito gene so that the mosquito would release lectin into its gut during feeding. The released lectin is toxic to the ookinete and therefore kills the parasite in the mosquito’s stomach.
In laboratory tests the research team showed that introducing lectin to the mosquito’s gut in this way significantly impaired the development of malaria parasites inside the mosquito, potentially preventing transmission to other people. Early indications suggest that this sea cucumber protein could be effective on more than one of the four different parasites that can cause malaria in humans.
Professor Bob Sinden from Imperial College London’s Department of Life Sciences, one of the authors on the paper said: “These results are very promising and show that genetically engineering mosquitoes in this way has a clear impact on the parasites’ ability to multiply inside the mosquito host.”
However, Professor Sinden explains that there is still a lot of work to do before such techniques can be used to combat the spread of malaria in real-world scenario. This is because although the sea cucumber protein significantly reduces the number of parasites in mosquitoes, it does not totally remove all parasites from all mosquitoes and as such, at this stage of development, would not be effective enough to prevent transmission of malaria to humans.
Professor Sinden says he hopes studies such as this one, which improve scientists’ understanding of the complex process by which malaria parasites are transmitted, will lead to new advances in the quest to prevent malaria.
“Ultimately, one aim of our field is to find a way of genetically engineering mosquitoes so that the malaria parasite cannot develop inside them. This study is one more step along the road towards achieving that goal, not least because it has been shown that more than one species of malaria can be killed in this way.”
About 40% of the world’s population are at risk of malaria. Of these 2.5 billion people at risk, more than 500 million become severely ill with malaria every year and more than 1 million die from the effects of the disease. Malaria is especially a serious problem in Africa, where one in every five childhood deaths is due to the effects of the disease. An African child has on average between 1.6 and 5.4 episodes of malaria fever each year.
Source : Imperial College London

Tropical Fruits

2008-01-21T09:24:00.000+07:00

Mango
East Java has earned the reputation of being the nation's fruit bowl. It is particularly known for its apples and mangoes which are now being exported if there is an abundant yield. Mangoes, however, are very popular fruit and this counts for the whole nation. Topping the list of a great variety here is the famous Mangga Arum Manis which grows very well on East Java soil. Whole areas around Probolinggo, Pasuruan, have been converted into mango plantations. When in season which falls mostly in the hottest and driest period of the year, Arum Manis is transported by trainload to destinations scattered over the entire island of Java. But the bulk is still going to the capital, Jakarta, which, with a population of more than 8 million is still the largest consumer.

Arum Manis is a darkgreen mango even when ripe. Its flesh is at times lemon and in another variety deep orange. The Arum Manis flavor, however, is unmistakable in charac ter which another mango type has not been able to equal yet. Its sweetness borders on nectar sometimes without a cloying after taste. There are three popular mango varieties in this country. The much sought after Arum Manis, Manalagi and Golek. Manalagi is a newer mango kind also of a very sweet flavor. It is only somewhat smaller than the two other types. Golek is the largest mango variety whose sweetness does not come up to par with that of Arum Manis and Manalagi. Even so, the fruit is economically a winner because of its fleshy contents. Although the mango has been around for centuries in this country, the fruit was originally from India. From tales still alive to this day, one may safely assume that the fruit made its entree during the Hindu period in this country. The legend about the mango in the region of Pasuruan was undoubtedly born in those days, a tale persisting in the belief that the fruit is a reincarnation of the deity P rajapati.

Improvement in the local horticultural techniques benefited the East Java fruit growers who saw their crop yields growing each year. 1983 went down in the annals of the Regional Government as a lucky year for mango export. Most of the fruit export is destined for Singapore which distribute it again to other places on the globe. One of the stumbling blocks in the tropical fruit export is packaging. Tropical fruit especially needs careful packing since many fruit varieties spoil and bruise easily.

Mangoes of a lesser type are legion in the country. Some of the names are, Egg Mango (mangga telur), Mango Indramayu, Mango Kwini, too many to be named here. The most dominating feature of these mangoes are that its flesh incorporates a network of fibrous strings which are in the habit of getting stuck in between one's teeth. These mangoes are also quite cheaper. One type, known as Mango Kwini in the province of North Sulawesi, and the southern part of the province of North Sumatera spreads a penetrating and stifling odor when it is ripe. The kind almost always gives itself away in households who have a few in stock. Apart from the apalling odor it emits, Mango Kwini's flavor is actually quite pleasant to the taste. The fruit is rather large and round of shape. The skin is of a dirty green speckled with black spots. The fruit grows on all islands of the archipelago. The Egg Mango is an attractive looking fruit. When it is ripe, the fruit turns bright orange. The Egg Mango, so called because of its shape like an egg, is smallish in shape. It is one of the most reasonable priced mangoes everywhere in the land.

Apples (Males Sylvestris)
Apples in Indonesia
Apples are grown in this part of the world, indeed. To be more precise, they are grown in East Java in the mountain region of Malang and Batu. The first apple tree sprouted up decades ago when a Dutchman with a green thumb tried to grow a four-season plant in a wholly different climate and on different soil too. Malang see-me to have the right temperature for apple growing. Situated on a level of 700-800 meter above sea surface, the first trees were doing surprisingly well despite the tropical climate. There was a large difference though between the European apple and his Malang grown sister, which became all too apparent when the first fruits were reaped. The apples were reportedly too sour for consumption. For a while people in Malang regarded the apple tree as a decorative shrub to have in the garden. The fruits went to waste usually as they were soon declared as quite inedible fruit. In several instances reports repeated that apple trees in other parts of the region were not even bearing fruits at all.

After world war 11 and after the country gained independence from the Dutch more people became interested in apple cultivation. Growth expanded considerably compared with the few and far in between shrubs from before the war. But the Malang apple remained a very unpopular fruit among Indonesians who clamored more for the imported stuff which was sweet and juicy. In time apple farmers were introduced to newer agricultural techniques which transformed the sour Malang apple into a fruit of refreshing taste and of a crunchy consistency. The people of Malang and thereabouts were plain delighted. Soon more apple orchardes were started, not only in Malang. The village of Batu followed suit and the uplands of Pasuruan, Mojokerto, Probolinggo, Ponorogo, Nganjuk, Magetan and further away, Madiun.

Malang still produces the largest yield with an annual crop of averagely 203.000
ton. A ministerial decree banning the import of foreign fruits that was issued in the early ens, reportedly drove up the apple crop in East Java. Apples from East Java are now in great demand with juice producents, bakeries, and everyday people since the homegrown fruits bear reasonable pricetags. With local apple consumption ever on the upswing, present crop yields are never enough to boost the country's export figures of local apples.

Avocado (Persea Americana Milll)
Avocado, once a fruit that came hardly to the attention of the local people because of its availability to anybody, ranks now in an exalted state because of its multitudal value to the sophisticated tongue and those of simpler tastes. Avocado in international cuisine whose following is growing rapidly among affluent Indonesian householders, has elevated this once lowly fruit to its present levels. Before international lunching and dining became a natural activity as it is today, the avocado was merely regarded as a cheap but nice fruit to make juice from. In the Minahasa, North Sulawesi, where the majority of the population is of Christian faith, more abuse is inflicted on this easily grown fruit with many possibilities. Pig farmers were known to feed avocado to their fare since the fruit never fetched a price worth mentioning on the market. Trees were not actually planted then. They happened to be there by nature. Avocado nowadays are specially raised for export in East Java. The bulk of the crop is reportedly destined for Singapore.

Citrus Varieties (Citrus Reticulata Blanco)
A great variety of the citrus family is represented in East Java and to a lesser degree, also West Java. Called 'jeruk keprok', meaning in the region's jargon "bashed in lemon,. this type of mandarin with crumpled skin has been a household word in East Java since centuries, perhaps. These mandarins are a very close image of the Chinese mandarins on sale in Hong Kong at around Chinese New Year. One can only assume their place of origin since research in this field is at the moment non-existent. The East Java Mandarin, though, has now undergone several crossing which has improved its outer ooks. Instead of the puckered, crumpled skin, the fruit now appears to sport a smooth satin like peel that no longer turns orange when the fruit ripens on the tree. Instead, the skin retains its luscious green color right through the ripening process. Beside the mandarin, there is "Jeruk mania", a relative of the Spanish orange of the same flavor, but less sweet. It is in season together with the mandarins when real hot weather when its juice colors most drinks in eating establishments. In West Java this variety has a sister going by the name 'jeruk Garut' (orange from Garut). Garut is a small place in the highlands of West Java which grows several citrus varieties, among others this green orange. Unlike the imported oranges, the Garut orange remains freshly green on the outside and so do several other citrus kinds in Indonesia.

The lemon family in this country follows an interesting line. On top is the 'jeruk nipis', a close relative of the western lemon which is three times larger in size and colored pale lemon. The local lemon is a very round citrus kind whose skin does not undergo any change in the ripening process. The difference in outer looks notwithstanding, its flavor is the same as that of the western lemon. One citrus kind which is of medicinal value, and quite unfit for consumption, is a pear shaped lemon with a rough un-smooth skin going by the name of 'lemon suangi'. The fruit is used to ward off the "evil eye" in the northern region of the island Sulawesi. Its leaves often become the main ingredient in a traditional potion that is supposed to heal all kinds of ailments. The medicine is doing wonders with tummy problems. This lemon variety, however, is now on the list of endangered plants because of excessive use by the local populating in isolated places of the island. It is said that the'lemon suangi' used to grow in the wilds. Nobody really cultivated the plant. It had always been there when it was needed by medicine men. Now, the Lemon suangi' has become a rare fruit which is not easy to find. Another type in the same citrus family found only in the most northern area of Sulawesi, is really a teeny-weepy orange, the'lemon chui'.

Thorny Fruit (Dunio Zibethinus Murr)
Some of the tropical fruit varieties are shielded by a thorny skin. In this range come Durian (Durio Zibethinus Murr), Jackfruit and to some extent, Soursop. Of the three the thorns of Durian are sharpest. To get to the contents of this fruit one has to have an adroitness for opening the fruit. Durian is not skinned like other fruits. It is squeezed open by way of putting pressure upon the whole fruit. The durian will easily fall apart in segments of four to five when the fruit is ripe.

Controversy surrounds the Durian heavily whose unpleasant outer appearance only helps making matters worse. The pro's and contra's for durian are more in favor for the first group in this country where the majority of the population regard it as the king of all fruits. Newcomers from non-tropical countries usually react strongly at first encounter with the fruit as they try to grapple with the appalling odor emitted by the durian. There is no way to exactly define the durian aroma. Some people take it rather well, still others may take offense from the odor which is of a persistent and penetrating quality. Of the taste, some newcomers liken it as something coming close to heaven, Others commented on it briefly with a four-letter word. Europeans who came to like the fruit say that one has to aquire a taste for durian. At first the fleshy seed may not reach much further before the throat. Normally, it would take several trials before the taste for the fruit is finally established.

Jackfruit (Arthocarpus Heterophyllus Syn. Artocarpus Integra)
Another fruit, a real giant in size, also has a thorny appearance. The thorns are not too sharp as that of the durian though. Nangka, or in English, Jackfruit, is a seasonal fruit. The seeds enclosed in yellow meat, are a great delicacy for most people. jackfruit is also a local vegetable before the fruit ripens. It then becomes the main ingredient in a vegetable dish made with coconut milk called 'gudeg'. Un like Durian, Jackfruit emits a pleasant aroma when ripe. It's meat is of a golden color and quite sweet.

Soursop (Annona Muricata)
The last in the thorny fruit variety is Soursop (Anona Muricata L.), so called because of its immensely sour taste. Strange as it may sound, the fruit is in the habit of attracting black ants of the variety found to penetrate closed bowls of sugar. Soursop has to be prepared with sugar or sweeteners when it becomes a very refreshing fruit drink.
Unlike the thorns of Durian and Jackfruit, the soursop's skin is a pliable covering scattered overed with soft thorns. Soursop fruit is now cultivated in large quantities for the supply of fruit juice manufacturing.

Soursop is an easy fruit to cultivate because the tree does not require special soil. It is able to grow in coastal areas and also on higher ground unlike Jackfruit which is doing better on higher levels of about 700 metre.

Snake Fruit (Salacca edulis Reeinw)
Locally known as Salak (Salacca edulis Reinw) the skin of this fruit is a deead look a like of snake skin. Snake fruit is a dead look relative of the palmtree, but the kind that stays close to the ground. The fruit nestles in clusters a little above the root of the tree on a bed of long, thin thorns. Except for the thorns on the main nerves of the leaves, the tree is often mistaken for the sago palm. Salak palms thrive best on dry, sandy, soil. The fruit has a swet acid like flavor and is totally dry. Juice of snake fruit is entirely non-existent. The best snake fruit in the country is cultivated on the island of Bali. Bali Salak is the sweetest of all snake fruit with only a slight trace of acid on the tongue. The season of Salak is near the end of the year, or, at the start of a new year.

Pineapple (Ananas Comosut)
Another fruit available throughout the year is Ananas (Ananas comasut (L) Merr.) or pineapple. The pineapple tree is an agave like plant with pink leaves which grows without difficulty on all the islands of the archipelago. Before only grown for consumption in the country, Ananas growth has manifolded since the making of canned fruit was introduced in the country. Now there is fresh Ananas as well as canned pineapple available which is mostly earmarked for export. The best of this fruit is grown in Palembang on Sumatra which has earned the reputation back in colonial days. The Palembang pineapple is nothing much to look at. It is small compared with others grown in other parts of the country with a scrawny look about it. But its content is very rich in juice and glucose. The taste of Ananas from Palembang is just like sheer nectar and honey which cannot be said of other pineapple varieties here. Some pineapple are, despite the luscious golden color, of a sourness for which there is simply no word in existence.

Technology brought more than agricultural knowledge. It added industrial know how to pine-apple planters who discovered that pineapple leaves is not only a basic ingredient in cable manufacturing. Fibers of the leaves also make good ground material for cloth, although this kind of cloth has not been developed yet to the full as in the Philippines. At present it is more looked upon as an unusual novelty. Other preservation technique besides pineapple canning is converting Ananas into pineapple jam. This fruit jam is very popular with the majority of the people. Not only is it made as a spread on bread, it is also used as a filling in small butter pies known in the country's jargon as 'nastar.'Ananas jam used to be a homemade product. In our mothers' and grandmothers' days, housewifes pride themselves with having the best recipe for pineapple jam. Pineapple jam bubbling on the stove emits a tantalizingly pleasant aroma of the fruit with cinnamon and a few dried cloves which reaches all the rooms and carners in the house. Nowadays, pineapple jam is mostly a mass product prepared and bottled in factories, sprouting with unbelievable speed in industrial areas of the country.

Rambutan and Dukuh (Nephellium Lapaceum L. and Lansium domesticum Corr)
Two fruit varieties that will always be winners with the fruit loving people of Indonesia, are Rambutan and Dukuh when they are in season. The season of Rambutan follows closely after the Durian season, and almost simultaneously with that of Dukuh. Rambutan is a special fruit, in that, it is a fruit covered with a hairy peel in red and pink colors. Its fleshy seed is white and sweet. It should be noted that of all tropical fruit Rambutan has won over many non-tropical fruit consumers because of its exotic flavor and unusual appearance. This fruit has become a most sought after delicacy among the Japanese who are reportedly, going in a big way for exotic fruit which they import from the States. Next to Japan, the United States have squired a taste for tropical fruit. So much so, that tropical vegetable gardens and orchards were started to satisfy growing demands. According to writers' stories, in California one can get all the tropical fruit and veg one could wish for. Henceforth, rambutan will be available when the season
arrives.

In Indonesia, the rambutan cultivations has received a boost with the oncoming of the canning industry more than a decade ago. Superfluous Rambutan do not rot away like before. The fruit is being directed to such factories where they will be conserved in syrup prior to canning. Dukuh, or Lansa in East Indonesia, is a round fruit with yellowish skin that sometimes show dirty spots on them. The variety of East Indonesia, Lansa, has a much more clearer skin of a spotless golden color, There is obviously a difference between the two which is hardly noticable. Dukuh is perfectly round and Lansa is of an oval shape. With regard to taste, many share the opinion that Dukuh is much sweeter than Lansa. In spite of the fruit's popularity, many people refrain from eating too much of it
because Dukuh juice has been found to cause an irritating throat. One doctor said that together with Dukuh time, sore throats and coughs are also sharply increased. Health buffs have wondered a long time about this coincidence until they stumbled upon the above finding about Dukuh and Lansa juice. The fruit, when in season, is sold in clusters like grapes along particular roadsides and in traditional markets.

Jambu Air (Sizygium Aquem Merr & L.M. Perry)
A very pretty fruit is Jambu Air which comes in three colors. Red, white and pink. Before a Jambu Air tree starts to bear fruit, pink blossoms all but cover the whole crown of the tree. A few of Jambu Air trees in bloom will spread a dainty fragrance in the garden. Jambu Air grows quickly and easily. Once the seedling has sprouted roots it would need very little attention except for watering the plant regularly. Jambu Air is a very juicy fruit, though it is not exactly sweet or sour. The white variety which is less mushy is found to be sweeter than its colored sisters. Jambu air is used in local salad, "Rujak."

Mangosteen (Garcinia Mangostana)
The mangosteen grows under the dense foliage of a medium-size tree and is quite .hard to see unless one is directly berieath it. One tree does not produce more than a few ripe fruits at a time and the tree is hard to propagate. There are thus no mangosteen plantations. The card-red husk encloses six or seven symmetrical segments. Splitting the rind is tricky because it is hard and tends to crumble, but one open, the segments separate easily. There is often considerable variation in the degree of maturity of each segment. The larger, mature segments usually have a seed while the others have an embryonic seed so small and soft it may go unnoticed. The taste is delicate, subtle and deliciously sweet. Mangosteens are easily found in the markets and fruit stalls starting in September. Hotels serve them regularly, usually in a mixed fruit basket.

Sapodilla (Sapota Zaspotilla)
Sapodilla grows on a small, unpretentious tree found all over the archipelagoes. The fruit looks like a small, brown potato with smooth skin. The flesh is a rich brown color with a vague radial structure of a lighter color, and contains one to five large seeds. The sapodilla has a very sweet, sugary taste, which hints at maple sugar. It is soft, though not juicy. The texture is very slightly gritty, but not obiectionably so. The fruit can be broken open and the flesh easily eaten without consuming, either the seeds or the skin. Sapodilla must be eaten ripe, however, because the fruit contains tannin and a milky latex when unripe.

Pomegranate (Punica Granatum)
The pomegranate is a native of the Middle East but was cultivated in India and Indonesia already in ancient times.lt grows on a large shrub or small tree which has brilliant orange-reddish flowers. About the size of an orange, the dullred pomegranate has a tough, leathery skin which allows the fruit to travel well. The skin encases six paper-thin sepsums, each containing seeds that are individually encased within a transparent, pulpy capsule. The fruit and the rind are an effective anti-bacterial agent, and the dried rind isoften used as a relief for dysentery.

Starfruit (Averrhoa Carambola)
Starfruit grows abundantly on a small tree that is found just about everywhere in the low and medium elevations of Indonesia. The fruit has not been highly bred so there are a number of local varieties, differing in size and sweetness. Only a fraction of the fruit finds its way to the local markets. The translucent skin of the golden-yellow fruit is so thin it can be easily punctured by a fingernail. The crisp and juicy pulp is fragrant and has a tart taste. The fruit is firm when ripe and can be eaten raw-skin and all-once the tough edges of the five ridges are peeled off. Despite the slightly acidic taste, starfruit does not contain tannin and so is not astringent. The tree and the fruit are considered to have uses varying from removing cloth stains to curing hangovers, and it is very high in vitamin C

Banana

2008-01-20T11:52:00.000+07:00

The true origin of Bananas, world's most popular fruit, is found in the region of Malaysia. By way of curious visitors, bananas traveled from there to India where they are mentioned in the Buddhist Pali writings dating back to the 6th century BCE. In his campaign in India in 327 BCE, Alexander the Great relished his first taste of the banana, an usual fruit he saw growing on tall trees. He is even credited with bringing the banana from India to the Western world. According to Chinese historian Yang Fu, China was tending plantations of bananas in 200 CE. These bananas grew only in the southern region of China and were considered exotic, rare fruits that never became popular with the Chinese masses until the 20th century.

Eventually, this tropical fruit reached Madagascar, an island off the southeastern coast of Africa. Beginning in 650 CE Islamic warriors traveled into Africa and were actively engaged in the slave trade. Along with the thriving business in slave trading, the Arabs were successful in trading ivory along with abundant crops of bananas. Through their numerous travels westward via the slave trade, bananas eventually reached Guinea, a small area along the West Coast of Africa. By 1402 Portuguese sailors discovered the luscious tropical fruit in their travels to the African continent and populated the Canary lslands with their first banana plantations. Continuing the banana's travels westward, the rootstocks were packed onto a ship under the charge of Tomas de Berlanga, a Portuguese Franciscan monk who brought them to the Caribbean island of Santo Domingo from the Canary Islands in the year 1516. It wasn't long before the banana became popular throughout the Caribbean as well as Central America. Arabian slave traders are credited with giving the banana its popular name. The bananas that were growing in Africa as well as Southeast Asia were not the eight-to-twelve-inch giants that have become familiar in the U.S. supermarkets today. They were small, about as long as a man's finger. Ergo the name banan, Arabic for finger. The Spaniards, who saw a similarity to the plane tree that grows in Spain, gave the plantain its Spanish name, platano.

It was almost three hundred and fifty years later that Americans tasted the first bananas to arrive in their country. Wrapped in tin foil, bananas were sold for 10 cents each at a celebration held in Pennsylvania in 1876 to commemorate the hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence. Instructions on how to eat a banana appeared in the Domestic Cyclopaedia of Practical Information and read as follows: "Bananas are eaten raw, either alone or cut in slices with sugar and cream, or wine and orange juice. They are also roasted, fried or boiled, and are made into fritters, preserves, and marmalades."

Note: The banana plant is not a tree. It is actually the world's largest herb!

Papayas

2008-01-08T15:56:00.000+07:00

Papaya, Pawpaw (Great Britain, South Africa), tree melon, ketela, kepaya ma-la-ko (Thai), pappali (Tamil)
(Carica papaya -- Family Caricaceae)

The name "pawpaw" should not to be confused with the fruit of the same name from the Annona family, which is related to the Cherimoya and custard apple.

In Australia and New Zealand, papaya (C. papaya) is called "paw paw", while the paw paw (Asimina tribola -- Family Annonaceae -- see below) found in North America is not related to the papaya. The only thing the two have in common is that both can be used for medicinal purposes. At least eight other species of the genus Carica, including babaco, bear edible fruits. The mountain papaya of the Andes, C. candamarcensis, is always cooked because of its high papain content.

Papaya is a fruit native to eastern Central America and was cultivated long before the arrival of the Europeans. Spanish and Portuguese invaders took to the fruit and quickly spread it to their other settlements. It was found growing in the West Indies by 1513; and, by 1583, it found its way to the East Indies via the Philippines. It had also made its way into Africa at an equally early date, and spread through the Pacific islands as Europeans discovered it. By 1800, papaya was grown in all tropical regions, with Hawaii and South Africa now the main exporters.

The papaya plant is a large herb that grows rapidly, reaching heights of more than twenty-five feet and producing a soft wood. The huge fingered leaves form a spiral similar to those of the palm tree. The plant grows quickly from seed and bears fruit within a year, continuing to do so for another two years before the tree is cut down. The tree grows best in temperatures of 25°C (77°F) and does not like storms or winds. It also requires good drainage as the roots will rot if they become water-logged. Frost also kills the tree. It does grow well in containers, making it an ideal house plant that can be put outside in the spring as soon as the fear of frost is past. Such strains as Hortus Gold of South Africa have separate male and female trees. Seedlings are planted in threes, and the males are used only for pollination and then discarded once the sex of the trees have been established and pollination has been accomplished. Others, such as the Hawaiian Solo, have fruiting hermaphrodites, which are preferred, and the females are later thinned out. These two strains produce the majority of the papayas in the West.

The fruits hang in large clusters along a central stem from the top down. Elongated watermelon-size papayas are not uncommon in Mexico, Asia, Puerto Rico and other Caribbean countries, weighing ten pounds or more; but those sold commercially are rarely more than six to eight inches in length and weighing about a pound. Some varieties remain green when ripe, but most have skins that turn a deep yellow or orange. The flesh of the papaya may be yellow or a beautiful deep, salmon-pink colour. No matter what the colour though, all will have an abundance of black seeds in the central cavity. The seeds are edible and highly nutritious; but they have a very spicy, peppery flavour. These are often ground up for medicinal purposes. The soft, juicy sweet flesh tastes like a cross between melons and peaches. The skin and the flesh are both edible and can be served the same way as melons, either eaten alone or in combination with other fruits. The leaves are also used for medicinal purposes, and sprouts can be gathered for salads after they reach a height of about twelve inches. For medicinal purposes, fresh leaves are more valuable and nutrient-rich than the fruit.

Papayas are an excellent fruit for antioxidants, containing not only vitamin E, but also more vitamin A than carrots and more vitamin C than oranges. It is also an excellent source of calcium, potassium, iron, B vitamins, and proteins. Along with these nutrients, it is the papain that most people are familiar with in this fruit. Papain assists in chemically transforming proteins into various amino acids, including arginine which influences the human growth hormone to increase muscle tone and decrease body fat. This enzyme is able to digest thirty-five times more protein than its own weight. Scientists consider papain to be a more powerful protein-digesting enzyme than either the body's own pepsin or pancreatin, which become inactive if the stomach acid is low. Papain, on the other hand, remains active whether it is in an acidic, alkaline, or neutral environment. At the same time, research has shown that papain can be effective in fighting cancer as it breaks down a protein substance called fibrin, found on all cancer cells, and thus preventing metastasis, including inhibiting the growth of human breast cancer cells. Patients taking papaya enzymes have shown to recover faster from surgery, radiation, and chemotherapy.

However, what most people do not realize is just where this valuable enzyme is located. Almost no papain is found in fully ripe fruit, but there is an abundance found in the leaves and green fruit. In addition, papain varies considerably with the species. Similar to papain, papaya also contains another enzyme, myrosin, and an alkaloid, carpaine, which calms the heart, bronchus, and muscles. Blending green fruit, a few seeds, pulp, skin and all in a drink is one way to dramatically increase nutrients, as well as benefit from the vital digestive enzymes. Mature green papaya also contains another enzyme which works along with papain to digest carbohydrates and fats. It also possesses an antiseptic quality that helps prevent an overgrowth of undesirable intestinal bacteria and parasites. Although the green fruit is not as palatable as the ripe, it does have only about two-thirds the carbohydrates of ripe fruit and twice as much digestible protein. However, it does contain less vitamin A.

The skin of the fruit is considered to be the most potent part to be used for medicinal purposes. It is well advised to use only organically grown papaya as the chemicals used during its growth are not conducive toward any health-promoting purposes. About one-quarter of the seed consists of a highly digestible protein which can be ground up and used to eliminate intestinal parasites. Even though the seeds are soft enough to chew, they are very spicy and must be ground up and mixed with something or swallowed quickly with juice, if taking many of them for this purpose. It takes about twenty seeds for about five days to eliminate most any intestinal parasite effectively. Papaya also effectively detoxifies the body, speeds metabolic processes, and increases elimination of toxins. Restoring enzymes to the body puts less strain on internal organs and strengthens the immune system. It also converts the amino acid arginine, which is an essential amino acid that influences proper cell function.

In 1875, a British physician, T. P. Lucas, discovered the medicinal value of papaya and started a hospital in Brisbane, Australia, to treat patients solely with papaya. The people in Papua New Guinea use papaya for the skin and to treat rashes or sunburn or, with repeated applications, to remove the brown spots of aging. They also say that if you put papaya into the compost pile, they grow especially large! Natives in the Pacific Islands use all parts of the papaya tree for medicinal purposes -- leaves; skin; seeds; bark; roots; flowers; and, of course, the fruit. South American women massage their breasts with thin slices of green papaya to stimulate the milk glands. Eating the fruit provides energy and nutrients for both herself and the baby. Papaya bark is used as a toothache remedy and the flowers in teas, to treat bronchial infections. For centuries, teas made from the roots were used to expel parasites and to alleviate bleeding, kidney colic, and jaundice.

Papaw, pawpaw (Asimina triloba -- Family Annonaceae) is the fruit of a small North American tree that can be found as far north as New York State, and has for a long time been cultivated by Native Americans. Its name is also used for a type of papaya, which is a completely different fruit. The papaw is yet another fruit referred to as a custard apple. The papaw has a smooth, yellowish skin without the knobs or reticulations, which is characteristic of its tropical relatives. The shape is slightly elongated and curved, with the average length being four inches. The pulp is yellow, soft, and smooth; and it has a rich creamy flavour like that of both the banana and the pear. It has a heavy fragrance that some find offensive, but it can be eaten raw or baked and made into various desserts.

FUN FACTS ABOUT PAPAYAS

2008-01-08T15:45:00.000+07:00

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON PAPAYAS
Papayas are pear-shaped tropical fruits with thin skin that ranges in color from dark green to golden yellow. Like many other fruits, papayas continue to ripen after harvesting. When they are ripe and ready to eat the skin will be golden yellow and the fruit will be slightly soft. The flesh of ripe papayas can be yellow, orange, pink or even red, depending on the variety. No matter what color it is the yummy fruit tastes like a cross between melons and peaches.

TYPES OF PAPAYAS
There are two types of papayas grown around the world. Hawaiian papayas (also called “Solo” papayas) are usually about 6 inches long and typically weigh about a pound. Mexican papayas are much larger. They can grow up to 24 inches long and weigh up to 10 pounds! Because of their large size, Mexican papayas are usually sold in chunks. Hawaiian papayas are usually much sweeter than the Mexican type.

HOW DO PAPAYAS GROW?
Many people are surprised to learn that the papaya tree is actually an herb, but unlike many of its cousins, this herb can grow 10 or 12 feet tall! The Mexican variety can grow even taller. Papaya trees can be one of three sex types: male, female or hermaphrodite. Only the female and hermaphrodite trees produce fruit, but the quality of the fruit is not the same. Fruit from the hermaphrodite trees is the best, and is the fruit you’re likely to find in a supermarket.

WHERE DO PAPAYAS GROW?
The papaya tree is native to Mexico and Central America, but the trees are now grown in every tropical and subtropical country. Brazil is the leading papaya producing country, but most of the papaya sold in the U.S. comes from Mexico. Papaya grown in Hawaii is usually sold to Canada and Japan.

GREAT WAYS TO EAT PAPAYAS
Fresh papaya makes a great snack! It’s so sweet and refreshing. Before you eat a papaya, make sure it is ripe by gently pressing it with your thumb. If you can press it in a bit, it’s ready to eat. Just cut the papaya in half, scoop out the seeds, and then scoop out and eat the delicious fruit. Papaya is also yummy mixed with other tropical fruits like mango, bananas and pineapple. It’s fun to make a tropical fruit salad for dessert! You can also buy canned tropical fruit salads that include papaya.

ARE PAPAYA SEEDS EDIBLE?
Most people only eat the sweet delicious flesh, but you can also eat the small, black seeds in the center of the fruit. The seeds taste like black pepper. People in some countries use papaya seeds in place of black pepper corns.

NUTRIENTS IN PAPAYAS
One-half of a Hawaiian papaya counts as one serving of your 5 A Day. A serving of papaya is an excellent source of vitamin C and a good source of fiber and folate. Papayas also contain beta-cryptoxanthin, an antioxidant phytochemical found in many orange-yellow fruits and vegetables that helps protect cells from the harmful effects of pollution.

This fact sheet is provided courtesy of Dole Food Company’s Nutrition & Health Program.
© 2002 Dole Food Company, Inc.

Agriculture

2007-12-13T16:13:00.000+07:00

Lead Author: David Pimentel (other articles)
Article Topic: Agriculture and food
This article has been reviewed and approved by the following Topic Editor: Marco Bertaglia (other articles)
Last Updated: July 6, 2007

Humans began to cultivate food crops about 10,000 years ago. Prior to that time, hunter-gatherers secured their food as they traveled in the nearby environment. When they observed some of the grains left behind at their campsites sprouting and growing to harvest, they began to cultivate these grains. From these humble beginnings agriculture began. Slash and burn, an early type of crop culture, remains today a truly sustainable agriculture, one that is independent of fossil fuel energy. In such a system, about 10 hectares of productive land is held in fallow for each planted hectare. With this rotation system, a hectare is planted once every 20 years, allowing the soil to reaccumulate vital plant nutrients. Although the practice requires large acreages and large labor inputs, the crop yields are adequate. For example, corn with ample rainfall can yield about 2,000 kilograms per hectare (kg/ha).

Over time, human labor in agriculture has decreased, first because of the use of animals and finally with machinery powered by fossil fuels. Currently, plentiful and economical fossil energy supports an era of machinery and agricultural chemicals. About 1,000 liters of oil equivalent are used to produce a hectare of corn with a yield of 9,000 kg/ha. One-third of this energy is used to replace labor, one-third for fertilizers, and one-third for others.

Worldwide, more than 99.7% of human food (calories) comes from the land. Serious environmental impacts, such as soil erosion, water runoff, and pesticide pollution, result from fossil fuel-intensive agriculture. A critical need exists to assess fossil energy limits, the sustainability of agriculture, and the food needs of a rapidly growing world population.

Impacts of Climate Change on Food Production and Supply

2007-12-09T08:16:00.000+07:00

Overall, climate change, including global warming and increased climate variability, could result in a variety of impacts on agriculture.? Some of these effects are biophysical, some are ecological, and some are economic (UNFCCC Climate Change Information Kit). ?

They include:

A shift in climate and agricultural zones towards the poles

Changes in production patterns due to higher temperatures

A boost in agricultural productivity due to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

Changing precipitation patterns

Increased vulnerability of the landless and the poor.?

Rosenzweig and Hillel (1995) explain these and other ideas in Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture and Food Supply.

In the early 1990's in a study sponsored by EPA, agricultural scientists in 18 countries estimated potential changes in national grain crop yields using crop models and the GCM scenarios at 112 sites worldwide (Rosenzweig and Parry, 1994) (Figure 3). The results of this global assessment suggests that a doubling of the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration will lead to only a small decrease in the global crop production.? However, it appears that developing countries in lower latitudes will bear the brunt of these problems.

Several factors contribute to the latitudinal differences in simulated yields. In high latitude regions, increased temperatures benefited crops otherwise limited by cold temperatures and short growing seasons.? The climate change induced warming at low latitudes brought greater heat and water stress, resulting in greater yield decreases than at higher latitudes.

In addition, in Rosenzweig et al., Climate Change and Extreme Weather Events; Implications for Food Production, Plant Diseases, and Pests, the authors found that global food supply may be affected by an increase in extreme weather events and climate variability associated with global warming.? Altered weather patterns can increase crop vulnerabilities to infection, pest infestations, and choking weeds.? This will not only decrease yields of crops, but also force farmers to apply harmful and expensive pesticides and herbicides.? The increase in extreme weather events will affect both developed and developing countries, although developed countries have more resources to deal with vulnerabilities

Source : http://www.climate.org/topics/agricul/index.shtml

Mitigation and Adaptation

2007-12-09T08:13:00.000+07:00

Reducing Carbon Emissions
One of the ways to prevent the effects of global warming is to decrease the amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.? The Kyoto Protocol is a document that came out of the U.N. sponsored Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This agreement, which has been ratified by over 100 countries, seeks to limit the amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere to 1990 levels.? However, the United States, which emits 25% of all global greenhouse gases, has not yet ratified the Kyoto Protocol.

Adaptation to Global Warming
Even if all CO2 emissions stopped at this moment, the amount of CO2 already emitted into the atmosphere will result in an enhanced greenhouse effect for the next 50 years.? Thus, people will need to adapt to the effects of climate change.

Adaptation can be defined as "any action that seeks to reduce the negative effects, or to capitalize on the positive effects, of climate change" (Riebsame et al. 1995).? Adaptive actions may be either anticipatory or reactive in nature.? An example of an anticipatory adjustment is the development of heat- and drought-tolerant crop varieties.?

The levels of adaptation undertaken by a region may have significant effects on how climate change will affect agriculture in that area.? In Rosenzweig and Parry (1994) levels of adaptation were grouped into two levels.?

Level 1 adaptations include:

shifts in planting date (?1 month) that do not imply major changes in crop calendar,

additional application of irrigation water to crops already under irrigation,

changes in crop variety to currently available varieties more adapted to the altered climate.?

Level 2 adaptations imply more substantial change to agricultural systems, possibly requiring resources beyond the farmers' means, including:

investment in regional and national agricultural infrastructure

policy changes at the regional and national level

Level 2 represents a fairly optimistic assessment of world agriculture's response to changed climate conditions.

Adaptation, especially Level 2 adaptation, may significantly reduce the effect of climate change on agriculture and the number of people at risk of hunger (Figure 5).? However, adaptation in developing countries, although it does reduce the negative effect of global warming, does not completely eliminate the potential increase in hunger

Source : http://www.climate.org/topics/agricul/index.shtml

Climate Change and Food Security

2007-12-09T08:12:00.000+07:00

Prepared by Lauren Sacks and Cynthia Rosenzweig

Introduction
Over the past fifty years, human ingenuity has led to technological advances in agriculture that have dramatically increased crop yields.? However, despite these improvements, agriculture is still highly dependent on climate since solar radiation, temperature, and precipitation are the main drivers of crop growth.? Since the industrial revolution, humans have been changing the global climate by emitting high amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, potentially resulting in higher global temperatures, changed hydrological regimes, and increased climatic variability.

Climate change over the next century may have significant effects on food supply, i.e., how much food is produced, as well as food security, i.e. how much food is available to people. How much, where, and when food supply and security will be affected by climate change are questions many scientists and policy-makers are examining.

Global Warming and Food Security
It seems obvious that any significant change in climate on a global scale should impact local agriculture and thereby affect the world's food supply.? Considerable study has gone into the questions of how farming might be affected in different regions, and by how much; and whether the net result may be harmful or beneficial, and to whom.?

Some of the major organizations studying the effect of climate change on agriculture include:

Food and Agriculture Organization
Columbia Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN)
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)

Source : http://www.climate.org/topics/agricul/index.shtml

Wheat Topdress Additives

2007-12-09T08:09:00.000+07:00

Producers should consider three important management decisions for wheat topdress
applications: nitrogen rate, application time, and nitrogen source. Producers may also have an
interest in considering other wheat topdress issues, such as the use of various additives with their
nitrogen application. Research conducted at Farm Focus in 2003 addresses the use of various
products with nitrogen topdress for wheat. A brief discussion for each of these research products
is presented below:
Addition of Copper
The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to the addition of copper in a
spring nitrogen topdress application. The treatments were 60 lb./acre nitrogen topdress using
28% UAN, and 60 lb./acre nitrogen topdress using 28% UAN plus 1 qt./acre Krystal Klear Cu (5%
chelated copper). These two treatments were replicated three times and broadcast applied on
April 2, 2003. Results from this single year study indicate no significant differences between the
two treatments for moisture or yield.
Evaluation of Nitrogen Rate and Sulfur
The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to two different nitrogen
topdress rates and the addition of sulfur in a spring topdress application. The treatments were 60
lb./acre nitrogen, 60 lb./acre nitrogen with 20 lb./acre sulfur, 90 lb./acre nitrogen, and 90 lb./acre
nitrogen with 20 lb./acre sulfur. The nitrogen only treatments were applied using 28% UAN liquid
fertilizer. The treatments with sulfur had THIO-SUL (26% sulfur solution, 2.87 lb. sulfur/gallon)
added at a rate of 7 gallons per acre, and the amounts of 28% UAN were adjusted to compensate
for the nitrogen available in THIO-SUL. These four treatments were replicated four times and
broadcast applied on April 2, 2003. Results from this one-year study indicate that the additional
30 lb./acre nitrogen significantly increased wheat yields. Based on the yield differences from this
trial, it would appear the sulfur did improve nitrogen efficiency at the lower nitrogen rate of
application, but had no effect on the higher 90 lb./acre nitrogen application rate.
Evaluation of Nitrogen Rate and Super N
The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to two different nitrogen
topdress rates and the addition of Agrotain Super N. The treatments were 60 lb./acre nitrogen, 60
lb./acre nitrogen plus Super N, and 90 lb./acre nitrogen. The nitrogen source for the three
treatments was 28% UAN liquid fertilizer. Super N was added at the rate of 3.25 gallons/ton of
28% UAN fertilizer to the 60 lb./acre nitrogen rate. Super N was not added to the higher nitrogen
rate due to space limitations in the trial. These three treatments were replicated three times and
broadcast applied on April 2, 2003. Results from this one-year study indicate that the additional
30 lb./acre nitrogen significantly increased wheat yields. The results did not indicate a statistically
significant yield increase from the addition of Super N to the lower rate of nitrogen.
All wheat research trials mentioned above received 250 lb./acre 11-26-15-6S broadcast at
planting. Plots were planted with a John Deere 750 no-till drill on September 30, 2002 at a
seeding rate of 150 lb./acre and harvested July 14-16, 2003. For complete details on the above
wheat research trials (including yield data, moisture data, and harvest populations) visit
http://www.farmfocusshow.com/research.htm and click on 2003 ‘Table of Contents’.

Source : http://vanwert.osu.edu/ag/article%20archives/2004/Wheat%20Topdress%20Additives.pdf

Sweet Potatoes

2007-12-05T08:05:00.002+07:00

Sweet Potato Casserole Reinvented
© Stephanie Gallagher

Nov 16, 2007

Sweet potato casserole is a Thanksgiving staple recipe for many of us. Here are some new twists on the old favorite.

Sure, the sweet potato casserole topped with marshmallows gets a lot of attention this time of year. But why not switch things up a bit this year?

Try my Sweet Potatoes with Apples. Sweet potatoes are topped with graham cracker crumbs and apples in this casserole. This dish is so tasty, you'll never believe that it is packed with fiber, protein and vitamins.

Mashed Sweet Potatoes are elegant in their simplicity. With just a touch of brown sugar, this recipe really lets the sweet potatoes shine.

Savory White and Sweet Potatoes let you combine two dishes into one. This dish showcases the savory side of sweet potatoes.

White Potato and Sweet Potato Gratin is another savory take on sweet potatoes, but this version is more like a scalloped potato casserole.

And if you really want to go with something different this Thanksgiving, what about Sweet Potato Fries? The kids will love them, and you don't even have to buy marshmallows.

Tempura Style Broccoli

2007-12-05T08:05:00.001+07:00

A Healthy Tempura Recipe That's Baked Instead of Fried.
© Stephanie Gallagher

Jun 29, 2007
Broccoli recipes don't get much tastier than this one, and tempura recipes don't get much easier.
Who doesn't love fried food? And tempura is an excellent (not to mention, delicious) way to get the whole family to eat vegetables.

But even if you aren't concerned about saturated fat, making traditional fried tempura at home can be a tricky proposition. It's messy and time-consuming.

The hardest part about this tempura-style broccoli recipe is cutting up the broccoli. And you can let the store do that for you! Most large supermarkets now sell pre-washed, pre-packaged broccoli florets in the produce section. They're a great timesaver.

It's important to use ice water in this recipe. That helps the batter stay authentic, like real fried tempura. If you don't have cake flour on hand, just use 3/8 cup of all-purpose flour and 1/2 cup corn starch.

Serve this tempura style broccoli with chicken satay and bok choy salad for an Asian fusion feast.

Tempura Style Broccoli
10 oz broccoli florets (about 2-1/2 cups)
3/4 cup cake flour (or rice flour)
1/4 tsp. baking powder
3/4 cup ice water
1 large egg, beaten
1 cup Panko (Japanese bread crumbs)
nonstick cooking spray
Preheat oven to 450 degrees F. Whisk together the cake flour, baking powder, ice water and egg lightly. Don't overmix. It's okay if there are a few lumps.

Spray a large sheet pan or cookie sheet generously with nonstick cooking spray. Dip broccoli florets in batter, one or two at a time, shaking off excess. Then roll in Panko crumbs. Place broccoli on a baking sheet. Repeat with remaining broccoli pieces. When all the broccoli is done, take your nonstick cooking spray and spray generously over the tops of the broccoli pieces. This will help browning and make the crust appear to be fried.

Bake in preheated oven until lightly browned, approximately 20 to 30 minutes. Serve with soy sauce or your favorite Asian dipping sauce.

Makes 4 servings.

Per serving: 246 calories, 3 g fat (1 g saturated fat), 53 mg cholesterol, 44 g carbohydrate, 2 g fiber, 10 g protein, 44% vitamin A, 110% vitamin C, 11% calcium, 24% iron

For more healthy broccoli recipes, see also:

Broccoli Salad -- Crunchy and flavorful, a real crowd-pleaser.
Broccoli with Garlic and Pine Nuts -- Who knew broccoli could taste so good?
Broccoli au Gratin -- Creamy and cheesy and full of vitamins, without all the fat.
Steamed Broccoli and Cauliflower -- A light accompaniment that goes well with just about any meal.
Broccoli Cheese Soup -- Perfect for lunch, this hearty soup is a favorite with kids and adults, alike.

Superfoods for Good Nutrition

2007-12-05T08:03:00.000+07:00

Fruits and Vegetables That Increase Vitality and Boost Health
© Scott Hayden

Oct 12, 2007

Spinach, broccoli and blueberries are some foods that can benefit your health and keep you free of disease.
We would all like to live longer. But what is the key to longevity? Your attitude is one important factor, and your physical health is another. And how can you maintain good health? The answer is in your supermarket and health food store. Any vegetable or fruit that is dark green, orange or purple such as spinach, carrots and blueberries have numerous health benefits. They also taste wonderful and can be used in many recipes. Below are seven vitamin-rich foods you should include in your diet.

Tomatoes - The tomato is an important ingredient in many Mediterranean dishes. This may be why some residents of Spain and Italy live to a very advanced age. Not only are they loaded with vitamin C, iron and potassium, they contain lycopene, a powerful flavonoid that has proven to slow the onset of several kinds of cancer. You can enjoy them raw or cooked, or even as a juice.

Broccoli - Loved by some and hated by others (usually children), this dark green vegetable is part of the cabbage family, and studies have shown it protects against stomach and lung cancer. It is native to the Mediterranean and is high in calcium.

Blueberries - These wonderfully sweet berries can be used in pie, cake and muffin recipes or pressed into a juice. Blueberries contain anthocyanins, flavonoids that protect blood vessels from oxidative damage. Studies have shown that just a handful of blueberries a day can improve your memory.

Strawberries - You can reap numerous benefits from eating this deep red fruit. They contain vitamins C, B5 and B6, iron, magnesium and fiber. They can protect your heart, cut the risk of cancer and act as an anti-inflammatory.

Spinach - Dark green and used in many Italian and Greek dishes, this leafy vegetable is full of folic acid and calcium. Chlorophyll gives it its green colour, and it's also high in fiber. The best weapon of all contained in spinach leaves is lutein, which can help to prevent cataracts in elderly people. It's a great addition to soups, omelettes and dips.

Carrots - Your mother knew what she was talking about when she told you carrots are good for your eyesight, because she was right. The beta-carotene in carrots is transformed into vitamin A in your liver, and then travels to your retina and is converted to rhodopsin, which improves night vision. They are also a great source of vitamins A, C and K.

Bananas - Cheap, delicious and easy to digest, bananas are high in potassium and can help regulate your blood pressure. Instead of grabbing a chocolate bar in the middle of the day, go for a banana because they contain no cholesterol and virtually no fat. Bananas are also great for reducing the effects of headaches caused by hangovers. The magnesium contained within the fruit can calm the pounding blood vessels around the brain.

Irrigation in Saudi Arabia

2007-11-29T21:51:00.000+07:00

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Center Pivot Irrigation in Saudi Arabia is typical of many isolated irrigation projects scattered throughout the arid and hyper-arid regions of the Earth. Fossil water is mined from depths as great as 1 km (3,000 ft), pumped to the surface, and distributed via large center pivot irrigation feeds. The circles of green irrigated vegetation may comprise a variety of agricultural commodities from alfalfa to wheat. Diameters of the normally circular fields range from a few hundred meters to as much as 3 km (2 miles). The projects often trace out a narrow, sinuous, and seemingly random path. Actually, engineers generally seek ancient river channels now buried by the sand seas. The fossil waters mined in these projects accumulated during periods of wetter climate in the Pleistocene glacial epochs, between 10,000 to 2 million years ago, and are not being replenished under current climatic conditions. The projects, therefore, will have limited production as the reservoirs are drained. Water, of course, is the key to agriculture in Saudi Arabia. The Kingdom has implemented a multifaceted program to provide the vast supplies of water necessary to achieve the spectacular growth of the agricultural sector. A network of dams has been built to trap and utilize precious seasonal floods. Vast underground water reservoirs have been tapped through deep wells. Desalination plants have been built to produce fresh water from the sea for urban and industrial use, thereby freeing other sources for agriculture. Facilities have also been put into place to treat urban and industrial run-off for agricultural irrigation. These efforts collectively have helped transform vast tracts of the desert into fertile farmland. Land under cultivation has grown from under 400,000 acres (1600 km²) in 1976 to more than 8 million acres (32,000 km²) in 1993.

Vegetarian Recipes for Kids

2007-11-29T21:21:00.000+07:00

Making Sure They Get the Nutrition They Need
© Denise Oliveri
Jun 8, 2007
Here are some super easy and yummy tasting recipes for your vegetarian child.
If your child is trying out what it is like to be vegetarian, here is some information that you might be interested in reading about.
If you are a vegetarian family and just want some simple and nutritious recipes to make sure your child is getting all of her nutrients, here are some super easy recipes.
Staples that you should keep in your kitchen include:
Nuts
Beans
Eggs
Soybeans
Tofu
Veggie burgers
Always have a fresh supply of your child's favorite:
Fruits
Vegetables
100% fruit juices
Apple Sauce
Ingredients:
2 small red apples
2 tbsp. lemon juice
2 tsp. sugar
2 pinches of cinnamon
Directions:
Peel the apples and cut them into small pieces. Throw out the core.
Put the apple pieces and lemon juice into the blender or food processor. Blend until the mixture is very smooth.
Pour the mixture into two small bowls and stir in the sugar and cinnamon.
Frozen Yogurt Pops
Ingredients:
Favorite flavor of yogurt
Directions:
Spoon yogurt into ice cube trays.
Cover the ice cube tray with plastic wrap.
Place a toothpick in the center of each cube by piercing a hole in the plastic wrap.
Freeze for about 2 hours.
Veggie Pizza
Ingredients:
Bagel (not frozen), cut in half
Tomato sauce
Shredded mozzarella cheese
Toppings (whatever you like)
Seasonings like oregano, basil, and pepper
Directions:
Preheat oven to 300 degrees F, or use a toaster oven.
Spread tomato sauce on each bagel half.
Sprinkle the cheese all over the tomato sauce on each half.
Add your favorite toppings.
Put a light sprinkling of seasonings on each half.
Place the bagel halves into the oven (or toaster oven) and bake for about 6 minutes. They are ready when the cheese is bubbly.
Banana Peanut Butter Sandwich
Ingredients:
1 small banana
Smooth peanut butter
2 slices of whole wheat or calcium-enriched bread
Directions:
Spread peanut butter on both halves of the bread.
Slice the banana and place the slices on one half of the bread right on top of the peanut butter.
Place the other slice of bread on top of the bananas, with the peanut butter facing down.
Variation: You can substitute raspberries, strawberries, or blueberries for the bananas.
French Toast
Ingredients:
3 cups sliced bananas (about 2 large)
3 cups soymilk
1-1/2 teaspoon of cinnamon
3/4 teaspoon of vanilla extract
12 slices bread
Maple syrup
Directions:
Mix together the bananas, soymilk, cinnamon and vanilla.
Pour into a pie plate.
Dip slices of bread into batter.
Fry in a skillet until slightly golden. Make sure that there is plenty of oil so the bread will not stick to the pan.
Serve with maple syrup.
Legos
Ingredients:
Graham crackers
Pretzels
Icing (different flavors and/or colors)
Peanut butter
Dried fruit and nuts
Directions:
Break up graham crackers and pretzels in different sizes.
Have them use the icing and peanut as "glue" and the graham cracker and pretzel pieces as Legos.
Let them decorate with a variety of dried fruits and nuts

Flower Garden Basics

2007-11-26T12:45:00.000+07:00

Practical Tips on How to Start A Flower Bed From Scratch Begin with Site Selection Soil Preparation and Design
© Barbara M. Martin

Mar 24, 2006

How to start your new flower bed or flower garden. Simple overview of flower garden basics to help you start out right: where to put it, soil preparation, style and size.
Beginning a first flower garden or a new flower bed can be a little daunting, but it is also exciting and always an adventure. Here is a quick rundown of practical how to tips on where to put it and how to begin. (Check my quick and dirty Landscape 101 for an overview on where to put a flower bed.) Each topic includes a link to more detail such as how to select the site for your flower garden, prepare the soil for planting your flowers, flower garden design, and selecting and planting your flowers in more detail.

A Sunny Spot is Best
For your first beginning flower garden, pick a spot that is in full direct sun. It should be sunny all day long or for at least half the day including noontime. Shady gardens can be terrific, but for a first garden with lots of flowers, a sunnier spot is better. More on Sun and Shade Conditions

Flat Ground is Easy to Garden
For a beginning gardener, flat ground is best because it is the easiest to work on. A slight slope will do fine, too, although the steeper it is the more difficult it is to garden on. A steep hillside is challenging. More on Garden Site Selection

Remove Grass, Sod or Weeds First
First, remove any existing grass or weeds including the roots. The more thoroughly you do this chore now, the better your results will be later. You can dig it out by hand or use a sod cutter; smother it with cardboard or newspaper topped with mulch over several months' time; or use an herbicide. If you use weed killer, be sure to read and carefully follow ALL of the label directions. More on Clearing A Flower Bed

Amend Soil: Add Organic Matter
Next, loosen the soil and mix organic matter into it. Organic matter is a catchall term for decomposed materials such as compost, old rotten leaves, well aged stable manure/bedding, spent mushroom soil, or whatever materials you have available locally at reasonable cost. More on Adding Organic Matter

What Size Flower Bed is Best?
Size does matter, and bigger is not always better. For a first flower garden I suggest starting on the small side. This way you are less likely to become overwhelmed by the preparation phase and won't be swamped by the maintenance as the season progresses. You can always build on your success and expand it later!

See Landscape Design 101 specifically for flower gardeners for help in deciding what size would be most appropriate and where to put the flower bed so it is integrated into the rest of your landscape.

Flower Garden Style
Meanwhile, think about how you want your flower garden to look. Do you like a formal or informal style? What color(s) do you like? What mood? What kind of backdrop will it have? More on How to Design With Confidence

Selecting Flowers to Grow
What should I plant? This is the big question and every gardener will have their own personal answer to it, depending on the growing conditions where the garden is and other practical considerations, plus the style of garden, and of course based on personal taste.

It's always fun to select the flowers for the garden, plant them and watch them grow. You'll have the best chance for success if you start by understanding the concept of Right Plant, Right Place and select plants accordingly. More on Right Plant, Right Place

Reality Check
Equally important, how much time do you have weekly to spend on maintaining your flowers? (Even low maintenance plantings require regular care.) Will you have help? What is your budget?

If you are just starting out on your very first flower garden, a modest sized flower bed is probably better than too big. An area about three or four feet wide and eight or ten feet long is manageable yet will give you lots of room to play with. You can see what works well for you and what doesn't and then build on that knowledge and experience later. More on Flower Garden Design with lots of ideas.

Have Fun!
I love growing flowers and flower gardening. It is so much fun, it can even become addictive. It's even good exercise. I hope you enjoy it as much as I do. Be sure to follow the above links to more practical tips and information about each subject and also check out All Flower Gardens Articles So Far -- I'm adding more all the time. Happy Flower Gardening!

All Flower Gardens Articles So Far

Copyright 2006 Barbara M. Martin

Gardening Seed Starting Choices

2007-11-26T12:42:00.000+07:00

How to Get Plants Off to a Healthy Beginning
© Christopher J. Kline

Oct 5, 2007
With all of the advantages from starting beautiful gardens from seed it is no wonder that more gardeners are using seeds to start plants.
There is something inherently satisfying about facilitating the miracle of nature that occurs when a plant is born from seed.

Selecting a Propagation Location
The first consideration is to select a good location for seed propagation. The following factors should be considered:

Light – Once the seeds have germinated, the sprouts of most plant varieties need medium to high light in order to develop properly. If the light is too low the sprouts will become lanky which produces weak plants. Some gardeners prefer to start their seeds in a garage, greenhouse or other inside area with an artificial light source. The best alternative is to start your seeds in a greenhouse. Most greenhouses can provide ample, but slightly filtered light that is ideal for seed starting. In hot climates direct sunlight may be too intense for some seed starts to handle until the plants get their second set of leaves.
Exposure to the Elements - Seeds and young plants are particularly susceptible to damage from the environment. This includes damage caused by rodents, birds and pests as well as inclement weather. Because of this it is generally best to find a sheltered area, or start the seeds indoors. Greenhouse enthusiasts have an advantage here as well.
Temperature and Humidity - Most seeds germinate when the soil temperature is between 68 and 86°F. Depending on the soil temperature where seeds are germinated it may be advantageous to use an inexpensive soil heating cable or electric seed warming trays for starting seeds. Seeds need moist soil to germinate and the young seedlings benefit from humid conditions. Many seed starting trays come with a plastic lid that works as a mini greenhouse for seed starts.
Methods to Consider
Direct Seed Method – Many seeds can be sowed directly in the garden or containers, and in some instances this may be a viable choice. One problem is that seeds and small plants are much more susceptible to falling victim to pests and predators than even two or three week old transplants. In many areas the birds or rodents will dig up seeds and have a feast before the seeds even get a chance to sprout.

It may be more difficult to care for and propagate young plants in your garden because seeds and sprouts must be kept moist and not be allowed to dry out. Another disadvantage is that there will always be some seeds that don’t make it to becoming viable plants. For uniform plant spacing in the garden it may be easier to use transplants that have already been selected as strong prospects. For these reasons and others, a general recommendation is to germinate seeds before transplanting into the garden or containers.

Using Professional Starting Trays – Some gardeners prefer to start many seeds at a time in professional seed starting trays which are plastic trays with separate compartments for each plant and a drip pan. With this method as many as three dozen seeds can be started in one try and then the weak ones can be weeded out while getting the sprouts off to a great start before planting them in the garden where they will face harsher elements and predators.

With this method it is important to use a potting mix that is specifically designed for starting seeds. These mixes are finer than even premium potting mixes and contain all the nutrition that seedlings will need to make it through their first two or three weeks. This method is certainly acceptable, but it too has some draw backs. There is a chance, even with careful transplanting, that the plants will sustain damage to the root system which will stress the young transplant. It is for this reason that the following method may just be the best one available.

Peat Pots or Pellets – Peat pots are small pots that are made of pressed peat moss. They can be filled with seed starting mix and planted in the garden when transplants are ready. There is however, an even easier alternative. Peat pellets are an ingenious innovation that consists of a compressed peat wafer inside a biodegradable mesh case. When the pellet is soaked in water it swells to five times its size and makes the ideal seed starting medium. A seed or two is simply pushed into the top of each soaked pellet and they are placed in the selected germinating location and kept moist until germination has occurred.

The pellets can even be bought with plastic trays that have clear lids and act as mini greenhouses for sprouting seeds. With these lids generally it is not even necessary to add additional water to the pellets until after the seeds sprout. Once the seeds sprout the lid is removed and sprouts are watered and grown in the trays until they form their second set of real leaves, generally two to three weeks. Then the biodegradable bags with healthy young plants can be planted in the desired garden location.

Choose a good location, select from among the alternative starting mediums and have fun starting your garden from seed this season. You will be glad you did! The following articles offer aditional resources:

Seeds for Desert Gardens I: Choosing and handling seeds

Organic Garden Seeds of Autumn: Organic Gardening Can Increase

Winter Sowing: Starting Seeds Outdoors---Gardening in the Middle

The Dirty Laundry Behind Organic Seed Germination

Agriculture and Gardening calendar of events

2007-11-26T12:41:00.000+07:00

© Sally Morton

Jul 12, 2006

Upcoming events in gardening. Do you have an event you would like featured? Contact me with details.

Building Healthy Communities Through Food

Start:

July 15, 2006 - 9:00am

Location:

EcoVillage Farm Learning Center, 21 Laurel Ln, Richmond, CA

Workshops for youth and adults from diverse communities who want to make changes in their neighborhoods. From starting farmers' markets to growing food, learn how to turn your ideas into action. Come and get connected to the food justice movement in California.

To get a brochure and register on-line:

www.foodsecurity.org/california/CA_Events.html

Riverside Community Garden Allotment Project

Sunday 16 July 2006, 10:00am - 4:00pm

On Sunday the 16 of July we will be completing our pond and wetland at Pontcanna Allotments, Llandaff Fields, in Cardiff, with the support of Cardiff Conservation volunteers.

We hope to encourage more biodiversity on the whole site with this valuable resource - come along and learn about how it is done.

Please come along and help from 10am to 4pm.

garden@riversidemarket.org.uk

Pontcanna Allotments, Llandaff Fields, Cardiff

Cuba Sustainable Food Systems Tour

Vegetable Gardening Advice

2007-11-25T15:12:00.000+07:00

© Sally Morton

May 29, 2006

Vegetable gardening advice on a variety of vegetable gardening topics. This blog provides links to vegetable gardening subjects I've written about at Suite 101.

For vegetable gardening advice, you can turn to numerous sources, but I hope you'll reference the articles and blogs I've created for you here on Suite 101 Vegetable Gardens. For a link and overview of all articles and subjects, click here. For timely gardening advice, keep the page bookmarked and visit often. But in case you've missed anything, here is a list of vegetable gardening topics you'll find at Vegetable Gardens:

Growing Vegetables, Part I gives a spring plant list; how-to establish a perennial asparagus bed; information on bush and pole beans and how to plant and stake pole beans.

Growing Vegetables, Part II covers how to plant sweet corn, cucumber, eggplant, melons, okra, side dressing, interplanting technique, gardening tips and recipe links for Okra, Corn & Tomatoes (a vegetable sidedish) and Cajun Gumbo. Growing Vegetables, Part III covers how to plant peas, peppers, squash, pumpkin, and sweet potato, plus gardening tips.

Gardening for Kids gives gardening ideas for delightful projects to undertake with children. Also gives links to popular sites to learn more. Be sure to see the discussion for more links.

Raised Bed Gardening I explains what raised bed gardening is, why it is desirable, and gives gardening tips to establish your own raised bed garden. Raised Bed Gardening II instructs how to create a raised garden bed, plus gardening tips, and how your raised garden beds can double as cold frames. Also see the blog Raised Bed Gardening Kits.

Learn all about tomatoes, the number one fruit grown in vegetable gardens! How to Plant Tomato and Growing Tomatoes cover all the different types of tomatoes, how to grow them, methods of staking, and increasing yield. Also see the blog Tomato, Fruit or Vegetable?

Cucumber Salad

2007-11-24T14:10:00.000+07:00

A Marinated Cucumber Salad Recipe

Sep 25, 2007

Fresh cucumbers are tossed with green peppers, onions and a rice vinegar marinade in this crisp salad recipe.

Have a bumper crop of cucumbers from the farmer's market or your own garden? This cucumber salad recipe is a great way to use them. It's light, tasty and loaded with vitamin C.

Crisp and refreshing, this recipe for cucumber salad is a welcome addition to just about any meal. It travels well, making it an ideal take-along salad for picnics and pot-luck gatherings. And it is the perfect complement to everything from shrimp quesadillas to citrus baked tilapia.

Rice vinegar lends a sweet and sour taste to the marinade in this cucumber salad recipe. It has an Asian flavor. You can find rice vinegar in the Asian foods section of your local grocery store. Or feel free to substitute apple cider vinegar or even white vinegar, if that is all you have on hand. If you like spicy food, try adding a dash or two of hot sauce to this cucumber salad recipe. It works surprisingly well.

This cucumber salad is a good make-ahead recipe, too. Just put it in an air-tight container in the fridge. It can last up to three days. You can even freeze it. Just be sure to thaw it completely in the refrigerator overnight before serving.

With absolutely no fat and no cholesterol, this cucumber salad is a perfect heart-healthy side dish to complement heavier main courses. Serve this salad with eggplant parmesan for a balanced vegetarian meal or as a light accompaniment to Italian chicken saltimbocca or baked macaroni and cheese souffle.

If you like this cucumber salad, try these healthy salad recipes, too: bok choy salad, Caprese salad, broccoli slaw, carrot raisin salad, and Fuji apple walnut chicken salad.

Cucumber Salad Recipe

1/3 cup granulated white sugar
1/3 cup rice vinegar
1 tsp. kosher salt
2 cups peeled and sliced cucumbers
1 medium green pepper, diced
1 small yellow onion, diced

In a large mixing bowl, whisk together the sugar, rice vinegar and kosher salt. Add the cucumbers, diced green pepper and yellow onion, and toss to coat well. Transfer the salad to a container with a top and refrigerate several hours to allow the flavors to meld. Serve cold or at room temperature.

Makes 6 to 8 servings.

Per serving (based on 6): 59 calories, 0 g fat (0 g saturated fat), 0 mg cholesterol, 14 g carbohydrate, 1 g fiber, 1 g protein, 2% vitamin A, 30% vitamin C, 1% calcium, 1% iron

The Role of Molybdenum in Agricultural Plant Production

2007-11-24T13:10:00.001+07:00

BRENT N. KAISER^*, KATE L. GRIDLEY, JOANNE NGAIRE BRADY, THOMAS PHILLIPS and STEPHEN D. TYERMAN

Discipline of Wine and Horticulture, School of Agriculture and Wine, University of Adelaide, PMB 1 Glen Osmond, South Australia 5064, Australia

^* For correspondence. E-mail brent.kaiser@adelaide.edu.au

Received: 18 February 2005 Returned for revision: 22 March 2005 Accepted: 2 May 2005 Published electronically: 20 July 2005

• Background The importance of molybdenum for plant growthis disproportionate with respect to the absolute amounts requiredby most plants. Apart from Cu, Mo is the least abundant essentialmicronutrient found in most plant tissues and is often set asthe base from which all other nutrients are compared and measured.Molybdenum is utilized by selected enzymes to carry out redoxreactions. Enzymes that require molybdenum for activity includenitrate reductase, xanthine dehydrogenase, aldehyde oxidaseand sulfite oxidase.

• Scope Loss of Mo-dependent enzyme activity (directlyor indirectly through low internal molybdenum levels) impactsupon plant development, in particular, those processes involvingnitrogen metabolism and the synthesis of the phytohormones abscisicacid and indole-3 butyric acid. Currently, there is little informationon how plants access molybdate from the soil solution and redistributeit within the plant. In this review, the role of molybdenumin plants is discussed, focusing on its current constraintsin some agricultural situations and where increased molybdenumnutrition may aid in agricultural plant development and yields.

• Conclusions Molybdenum deficiencies are considered rarein most agricultural cropping areas; however, the phenotypeis often misdiagnosed and attributed to other downstream effectsassociated with its role in various enzymatic redox reactions.Molybdenum fertilization through foliar sprays can effectivelysupplement internal molybdenum deficiencies and rescue the activityof molybdoenzymes. The current understanding on how plants accessmolybdate from the soil solution or later redistribute it oncein the plant is still unclear; however, plants have similarphysiological molybdenum transport phenotypes to those foundin prokaryotic systems. Thus, careful analysis of existing prokaryoticmolybdate transport mechanisms, as well as a re-examinationof know anion transport mechanisms present in plants, will helpto resolve how this important trace element is accumulated.

Key words: Molybdenum, molybdate transport, nitrate reductase, Moco, Vitis vinifera, Merlot, Millerandage, sulfate transport, nitrogen fixation, nitrogen metabolism, plant nutrition

Plant Industry - Pesticides

2007-11-24T11:47:00.000+07:00

Tommy Gray
Director
Pesticide Division
19 M.L.K. Jr. Drive, SW, Room 550
Atlanta, GA 30334

The Pesticide Division enforces state and federal laws pertaining to the use and application of pesticides. Under the Georgia Pesticide Use and Application Act this section monitors the use of pesticides in a variety of pest management situations including commercial farming, lawn care/landscaping, forestry, public health, right-of-way, etc. It also licenses private and commercial pesticide applicators and pesticide contractors. Under the Georgia Pesticide Control Act the division licenses restricted use pesticide dealers and registers all pesticides for sale and distribution in Georgia. Additionally, the Pesticide Division licenses wood treatment facilities, inspects irrigation systems for chemigation, coordinates a pesticide container recycling program and waste pesticide collection program.

Parkinson's disease and exposure to agricultural work and pesticide chemicals

2007-11-22T14:08:00.000+07:00

Karen M. Semchuk, PhD, Edgar J. Love, MD, PhD and Robert G. Lee, MD, FRCP(C)

Departments of Community Health Sciences (Drs. Semchuk and Love) and Clinical Neurosciences (Dr. Lee), Faculty of Medicine, The University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada; and the Centre for Agricultural Medicine, Department of Medicine (Dr. Semchnk), College of Medicine and the College of Nursing (Dr. Semchuk), University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.

This population-based case-control study of 130 Calgary residents with neurologist-confirmed idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) and 260 randomly selected age- and sex-matched community controls attempted to determine whether agricultural work or the occupational use of pesticide chemicals is associated with an increased risk for PD. We obtained by personal interviews lifetime occupational histories, including chemical exposure data, and analyzed the data using conditional logistic regression for matched sets. In the univariate analysis, a history of field crop farming, grain farming, herbicide use, or insecticide use resulted in a significantly increased crude estimate of the PD risk, and the data suggested a dose-response relation between the PD risk and the cumulative lifetime exposure to field crop farming and to grain farming. However, in the multivariate analysis, which controlled for potential confounding or interaction between the exposure variables, previous occupational herbicide use was consistently the only significant predictor of PD risk. These results support the hypothesis that the occupational use of herbicides is associated with an increased risk for PD.

Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. Karen M. Semchuk, Centre for Agricultural Medicine, University of Saskatchewan. Royal University Hospital, Saskatoon, SK S7N 0X0, Canada.

Supported in part by the National Health Research and Development Program, Health and Welfare Canada, through a grant (no. 6609–1473–53) and through a National Health PhD Fellowship to Dr. Semchuk.

Received July 11, 1991. Accepted for publication in final form December 5, 1991.

Wheat Topdress Additives

2007-11-22T12:31:00.000+07:00

Producers should consider three important management decisions for wheat topdress
applications: nitrogen rate, application time, and nitrogen source. Producers may also have an interest in considering other wheat topdress issues, such as the use of various additives with their nitrogen application. Research conducted at Farm Focus in 2003 addresses the use of various products with nitrogen topdress for wheat. A brief discussion for each of these research products is presented below:

Addition of Copper
The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to the addition of copper in a spring nitrogen topdress application. The treatments were 60 lb./acre nitrogen topdress using 28% UAN, and 60 lb./acre nitrogen topdress using 28% UAN plus 1 qt./acre Krystal Klear Cu (5% chelated copper). These two treatments were replicated three times and broadcast applied on April 2, 2003. Results from this single year study indicate no significant differences between the two treatments for moisture or yield.

Evaluation of Nitrogen Rate and Sulfur
The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to two different nitrogen topdress rates and the addition of sulfur in a spring topdress application. The treatments were 60 lb./acre nitrogen, 60 lb./acre nitrogen with 20 lb./acre sulfur, 90 lb./acre nitrogen, and 90 lb./acre nitrogen with 20 lb./acre sulfur. The nitrogen only treatments were applied using 28% UAN liquid fertilizer. The treatments with sulfur had THIO-SUL (26% sulfur solution, 2.87 lb. sulfur/gallon)
added at a rate of 7 gallons per acre, and the amounts of 28% UAN were adjusted to compensate for the nitrogen available in THIO-SUL. These four treatments were replicated four times and broadcast applied on April 2, 2003. Results from this one-year study indicate that the additional 30 lb./acre nitrogen significantly increased wheat yields. Based on the yield differences from this trial, it would appear the sulfur did improve nitrogen efficiency at the lower nitrogen rate of application, but had no effect on the higher 90 lb./acre nitrogen application rate.

Evaluation of Nitrogen Rate and Super N The objective of this study is to evaluate yield response of wheat to two different nitrogen topdress rates and the addition of Agrotain Super N. The treatments were 60 lb./acre nitrogen, 60 lb./acre nitrogen plus Super N, and 90 lb./acre nitrogen. The nitrogen source for the three
treatments was 28% UAN liquid fertilizer. Super N was added at the rate of 3.25 gallons/ton of 28% UAN fertilizer to the 60 lb./acre nitrogen rate. Super N was not added to the higher nitrogen rate due to space limitations in the trial. These three treatments were replicated three times and broadcast applied on April 2, 2003. Results from this one-year study indicate that the additional 30 lb./acre nitrogen significantly increased wheat yields. The results did not indicate a statistically
significant yield increase from the addition of Super N to the lower rate of nitrogen.

All wheat research trials mentioned above received 250 lb./acre 11-26-15-6S broadcast at planting. Plots were planted with a John Deere 750 no-till drill on September 30, 2002 at a seeding rate of 150 lb./acre and harvested July 14-16, 2003. For complete details on the above wheat research trials (including yield data, moisture data, and harvest populations) visit http://www.farmfocusshow.com/research.htm and click on 2003 ‘Table of Contents’.

The Dog Still Wags the Tail, For Now

2007-11-22T12:23:00.000+07:00

The United States remains the world's largest corn producer and currently exports about one-fifth of annual production. Corn has always been a major component of livestock feed, but is also processed for human consumption (glucose, starch, and oil) and industrial uses (alcohol and ethanol). Chemists are further developing
new industrial products from corn starch. Given the wide range of possible uses for corn products and because of tremendous technological advances, corn is at the heart of the increasing industrialization of the U.S. grain system.

Unfortunately, the market for food made from commodity corn is mature (USDA-ERS), and food uses for corn are expected to expand only at the rate of population growth. Differentiation of corn through specialty or identity preserved (IP) markets may, however, open new markets for corn. In fact, the specialty corn market increased from
3.3% of total U.S. corn in 1996 to 10.9% in 2000 (U.S. Grains Council) and because of advances in corn processing and increased consumer demand for differentiated products, these trends are expected to continue. U.S. corn growers will be faced with an increasingly intermixed market where specialty/IP corn coexists more often with the generic standard commodity corn.

Price premiums of specialty/IP corn types relative to commodity corn also vary from year to year depending on factors such as crop quality, and the presence and type of production contracts. The quality of the crop has a significant impact on price premium, particularly if specialty corn types are produced without contracts. Under
production contracts, price premiums depend on the contract type. Base price (market) plus a premium is a very common and straightforward contract type, but unfortunately leaves the producer with all price and yield risks.

The variability of price premiums from year to year, and the reliance on production contracting are also reflected in higher variability in supply and demand for specialty/IP corn compared to commodity corn. This is evidenced by findings of the U.S. Grains Council survey that show the high degree of entry and exit of farms in and out of specialty crop production. The key factor drawing farmers in and out of specialty corn is the price premium and the relative returns compared to commodity corn .

Recently, the USDA released results of a study (Elbehri and Paarlberg, 2003) to evaluate price and market behavior between commodity corn and specialty/IP corn. The objective of the study was to explore the price and market behavior of a corn market under product differentiation and identity preservation.

Results from this USDA study suggest that given its dominant market share, changes in commodity corn have greater impact on specialty/IP corns than changes in specialty/IP corns have on the commodity corn market. Specialty/IP corn markets must expand greatly before they will generate large positive spillover effects on
commodity corn. Therefore, as specialty/IP markets expand, they will have greater effects on the commodity corn market, and thus become a driving factor in corn market pricing structure. But for now the dog still wags the tail.

For more information on the article above please contact Andy Kleinschmidt of the Ohio State University Extension Office in Van Wert County at kleinschmidt.5@osu.edu or at 419-238-1214.

REFERENCES
Elbehri, A., and P. Paarlberg. 2003. Price Behavior in Corn Market with Identity Preserved Types. American
Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Montreal, Canada.
USDA-ERS Briefing Room, Corn: Background [online] http://www.ers.usda.gov/Briefing/Corn/background.htm

Agriculture Dictionary

2007-11-22T12:06:00.000+07:00

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